The term Prehistoric Times or Period refers to the time before the invention of writing. No written records are available of this period; the knowledge of this period is entirely derived from archaeological findings such as stone tools, pottery, ornaments, cave paintings, and skeletal remains. Robert Bruce Foote, the father of Prehistoric Archaeology, discovered the first Palaeolithic tool in India- the Pallavaram handaxe.

 

This period marks the evolution of human life from food-gathering nomads to settled agricultural communities. Pre-Historic times consist of five periods- Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Iron Age.

 

Historical Sources of Prehistory

The study of ancient Indian history relies on various sources that help historians reconstruct the lives, cultures, and societies of the period. During the Prehistoric Period, no written records existed, so the bulk of our understanding comes from archaeological evidence. Later, in proto-historic and early historic phases, coins, inscriptions, and literature began to supplement this evidence.

 

1. Archaeological Sources

• Material remains are the archaeological evidence left behind by early humans that help reconstruct their lifestyle, tools, economy, and culture.
• Excavations: Tools, pottery, ornaments, animal bones, skeletons, etc.
• Rock Paintings: Bhimbetka rock shelters (MP) - UNESCO World Heritage site, the earliest art form of history.
• Fossils & Bones: Indicate early human and animal evolution. It provides data on diet, domestication, and physical traits.

 

2. Dating Techniques

• Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon Dating): Organic remains (wood, bones).
• Dendrochronology: The scientific method of dating three rings, also called Dating tree rings.
• Thermoluminescence: Dating pottery and burnt stones.
• Pollen Analysis & Stratigraphy: Help determine climatic conditions.

 

• Prehistoric people used a barter system, so coins are absent in strict prehistory.
• No inscriptions exist for Prehistoric India; they appear in the Proto-historic Phase (like Indus seals) and become abundant in the Early Historic Period (Mauryan Age onwards).
• True literary sources appear only after Prehistoric times, but for continuity of study, they provide context to prehistoric beliefs and traditions.

 

Classification of the Prehistoric Period

Archaeologists classify the prehistoric period into five main cultural phases based on tool technology and livelihood pattern: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Iron Age.

 

 

1. Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Time Period: 30,00,000 – 10,000 BC
Meaning: ‘Paleo’ = old, ‘Lithic’ = stone.

 

Key Features of the Palaeolithic Age

• The Palaeolithic period is the earliest period of the Stone Age, which developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age.
• Humans were hunter-gatherers living in caves and open sites near rivers and forests.
• Used hand axes, cleavers, choppers, and scrapers made of quartzite and other hard stones.
• Palaeolithic men are called as Quartzite men in India -Quartzite is a hard rock.

 

Phases

1. Lower Paleolithic (30,00,000 – 1,00,000 BC):
   • Evolution: Learned to control fire for roasting meat and warding off animals. Hunting and food gathering. Lived in trees and in caves.
   • Tools: Hand-axe, cleaver, chopper.
   • Sites: Soan Valley (Pakistan), Hiran Valley (Gujarat), Attirampakkam (TN), Narmada Valley (MP), Belan Valley (UP).
2. Middle Paleolithic (1,00,000 – 40,000 BC):
   • Evolution: Men remained hunters and food gatherers, but language was invented in this period for communication.
   • Tools: Scrapers, borers, points. - Most of the tools were made from Flakes; Flake Culture.
   • Sites: Belan Valley (UP), Narmada Basin, Tungabhadra Valley, Potwar plateau (between Indus & Jhelum) etc.
3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 – 10,000 BC):
   • Evolution: Homo sapiens first appeared at the end of this phase.
   • Tools: Blades, burins, needles - more sophisticated and lighter; Flake-Blade Culture.
   • Sites: Kurnool Caves (AP), Bhimbetka (MP), Belan Valley (UP) etc.

Important Discovery:

• Robert Bruce Foote discovered the first Paleolithic tool in India (Pallavaram, Tamil Nadu) -called the 'Father of Indian Prehistoric Archaeology'
• Bhimbetka Rock Shelters: Located at Raisen district in Madhya Pradesh, it is the oldest & largest rock painting of Indian sub-continent.
• The term Palaeolithic was coined by John Lubock.
• Ostriches were found in India during Paleolithic period.

 

2. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

Time Period: 9,000 – 4,000 BC
Meaning: ‘Meso’ = middle; transitional phase between Palaeolithic and Neolithic.

 

Key Features of the Mesolithic Age

• The Mesolithic period is called as the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages.
• Mesolithic tools were discovered in the rock shelters of Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh.
• Use of microliths (tiny stone tools) fixed into wood or bone handles.
• Domestication of animals first started (dog, sheep, goat).
• Practised fishing, hunting, and limited cultivation.
• Early signs of semi-permanent settlements.
• The first human colonisation of the Ganga Plains happened during the Mesolithic period.

 

Important Sites

• Bagor (Rajasthan): Evidence of domesticated animals and microliths.
• Langhnaj (Gujarat): Microliths and animal bones.
• Adamgarh and Bhimbetka (MP): Rock paintings showing hunting and social scenes.

 

Important Discovery:

• In India, John Evan discovered the Mesolithic archaeological materials.
• Artistic expression continued through cave paintings.
• Burials indicate early religious or ritual practices.

 

3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Time Period: 7,000 – 1,000 BC
Revolution: Known as the Neolithic Revolution due to the beginning of agriculture.

 

Key Features of the Neolithic Age

• Agriculture began: Cultivation of wheat, barley, and rice.
• Domestication of animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo.
• Permanent settlements and rectangular or circular mud houses developed.
• Pottery and weaving began.
• Use of polished stone tools.
• A Celt is a tool from the Neolithic period.
• Social life became organised; surplus food led to barter exchange.

 

Important Sites

• Burzahom (J&K): Pit dwellings, bone tools, and domesticated dogs.
• Chirand (Bihar): Rice cultivation and bone tools.
• Koldihwa (UP): Earliest evidence of rice cultivation in India.
• Daojali Hading (Assam): Cord-impressed pottery, Neolithic tools.
• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): The earliest evidence of agriculture in Indian sub-continent.

 

Mehrgarh:

Mehrgarh is one of the earliest known agricultural settlements in South Asia, located on the foothills of the Bolan Pass in Balochistan (Pakistan) known as the Breadbasket of Balochistan. It dates back to around 7000 BCE, belonging to the Neolithic period. Archaeological findings show that people here cultivated wheat and barley, domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats, and lived in mud-brick houses. The site also reveals evidence of pottery, beads, and early burial practices, indicating a settled and organised life.

 

Mehrgarh is considered the precursor to the Indus Valley Civilisation, showing the gradual transition from a rural farming community to urban culture.

 

Important Discovery:

• Neolithic people knew about the fire and wheel.
• The credit for the discovery of Neolithic archaeological material goes to Dr. Primrose.
• V. Gordon Childe termed the Neolithic phase as the Neolithic Revolution as it was a period of revolutions.
• Catal Huyuk: Catal Huyuk is a very large Neolithic site in Southern Anatolia, Turkey. It is famous for the transition from a settled village to an urban agglomeration.

 

4. Chalcolithic Age (Stone-Copper Age)

Time Period: 3,500 – 1,000 BC
Meaning: ‘Chalco’ = copper; ‘Lithic’ = stone.

 

Key Features of the Neolithic Age

• The first metal age of India is called the Chalcolithic Age or Stone-Copper Age.
• Use of copper and bronze alongside stone tools.
• Development of painted pottery, beads, ornaments, and metal tools.
• Flourishing of village communities with agriculture and animal rearing.
• Trade and craftsmanship developed in this period.
• The Chalcolithic Age is divided into 3 stages: Pre-Harappan Age, Harappan Age, and Post-Harappan Age.

 

Major Chalcolithic Cultures

• Ahar–Banas Culture (Rajasthan): Black-and-red ware pottery, copper tools, and millet cultivation.
• Malwa Culture (MP): Distinctive painted pottery, large settlements like Navdatoli.
• Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra): Painted pottery with geometric designs, granaries, and evidence of surplus storage.
• Kayatha Culture (MP): Early use of copper, domesticated cattle, and agricultural tools.
• Savalda Culture (Maharashtra): Located at Dhulia district of Maharashtra.

 

Important Site

• Daimabad (Maharashtra): It is the largest Chalcolithic site; discovered bronze figures of elephant, chariot, rhinoceros, and buffalo.
• Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu): Several bronze and copper objects, terracotta figurines and pottery were found.

 

5. Iron Age

Time Period: 1000 – 500 BC

 

Key Features of the Iron Age

• The Chalcolithic age is followed by the Iron Age.
• Widespread use of iron tools revolutionized agriculture and warfare.
• Iron age was Led to surplus food production and rise of urban centers.
• Known for Megalithic culture in South India (Megalithic means large stone burials).

 

Important Megalithic Sites

• Inamgaon (Maharashtra): It is located at the River Gond in Maharashtra.
• Hallur and Maski (Karnataka): Iron artefacts, megalithic burials.
• Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu): Earthenware urn burials with iron weapons.
• Ganga Valley: Early agricultural communities and later Janapadas emerged.

 

Key Facts of the Topic

• Belan Valley: In Belan Valley, there are three phases of Pre-History; Palaeolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic culture is found in sequence.
• Hunasagi is a Palaeolithic site of archaeological importance in India.
• First Palaeolithic site discovered - Pallavaram, Tamil Nadu
• Bhimbetka rock paintings: Show hunting, dancing, and group activities - the earliest art form in India, located in Madhya Pradesh.
• The First Metal used by man was Copper.
• Largest Chalcolithic Site - Daimabad, Maharashtra
• Mehrgarh belongs to the Neolithic Period.