Drainage Pattern of India

Drainage Pattern Classification of India

Drainage pattern refers to the geometric arrangement of rivers and their tributaries in a particular region. These patterns are determined by factors such as: Topography, Slope, Geological time period and structure, Climate, Nature of parent rock, Amount of water, and Human activity.

Antecedent Drainage: The river which are existed before the upheaval of the Himalayans and cut their course southward by making ‘V’ shaped valley. Examples- Indus, Sutlaj, Teesta, Arun, and Brahmaputra.

Superimposed Drainage: It is formed when a stream with a course originally established on a cover of rock, now removed by erosion, so that the stream is independent of the newly expose rocks and structure. Examples- Chambal, Damodar, Ajay, Beas, and Subarnarekha.

Subsequent Drainage: The Subsequent Drainage Pattern is a type of river system that develops after the initial topography has been formed. These rivers do not follow the original slope of the land, but instead they adjust their course in response to the geological structure of the region, such as weak rock zones, folds, faults, or softer strata. Examples- Yamuna, Gandak, Kosi, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Sone etc.

Dendritic Pattern: It gets its name from the Greek word “dendron”, meaning tree, because the river and its tributaries resemble the branches of a tree or veins of a leaf.

Basic terminologies:

Perennial River: A river that flows throughout the year, fed by glacial melt, springs, and rainfall. Example- Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus.

Ephemeral River: A river that flows only during the rainy season and remains dry for the rest of the year. Example- Rivers in Rajasthan like Luni.

Catchment area: The total area from which a river and its tributaries collect water, including rainfall and melting snow.

Watershed or Rills: The boundary line separating two adjacent drainage basins. Also refers to small water channels formed by surface runoff.

Drainage Basin: The entire area drained by a river system, including the main river and all its tributaries. Also known as river basin.

Source of River: The origin points of a river, usually in the mountains, glacier, spring, or lake. Example- Gangotri Glacier is the source of the Bhagirathi (Ganga).

Mouth of River: The point where a river ends by draining into a sea, ocean, or lake. Example- Ganga flows into the Bay of Bengal.

River Course: The path taken by a river from its source to its mouth. It may include upper, middle, and lower courses.

Tributary: A smaller stream or river that joins a larger river. Example- Yamuna is a tributary of the Ganga.

Distributary: A stream that branches off from the main river and flows away, especially in delta regions. Example- Hooghly is a distributary of the Ganga.

Delta: A triangular-shaped landform formed at the river mouth due to deposition of sediments. Example- Sundarbans Delta.

Estuary: A wide mouth of the river where it meets the sea with tidal influence, but no sediment deposition. Example- Narmada and Tapi form estuaries.

Inland Drainage: When a river does not reach the sea and its water gets lost in sand, lakes, or depressions. Example- Luni River (Rajasthan).

Indian River System

India has a vast and complex river system, broadly classified into two major categories based on origin, flow characteristics, and geomorphology:

Himalayan River System
Peninsular River System

Himalayan River system

These rivers originate from the snow-covered Himalayan mountains and are perennial, meaning they flow throughout the year. Fed by glaciers and rainfall, they have a huge water discharge. It mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra River basin.

Long courses from their source to the sea.
High sediment load, leading to the formation of fertile alluvial plains.
Prone to flooding during monsoon due to heavy rains.
Form meanders, ox-bow lakes, and deltas.
Young rivers with active erosion and deposition.

The Indus River System (Sindhu River):

The Indus River is one of the longest rivers in the world, originating from Bokar Chu Glacier, Lake Mansarovar near Mount Kailash in Tibet (China).
Indus river basin is the largest river basins of the world covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India- 3,21,289 sq. km). Total length 2,880 km and in India it extends over the length of 1,114 km.
Known as 'Singhi Kamban' or Lion’s mouth in Tibet.
It crosses the Himalayan (ends its mountains journey) through a 5181 m deep Gorge near Attok, Lying north of the Nanga Parvat. It takes a sharp southerly band here (Syntaxial band).
Kabul river (Afghanistan) joins Indus near Attok.
The river flows Southward and receives Panjnad (5 rivers of Panjab; Jhelam, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj) a little bit of Mithankot.
Indus drainage basin covers parts of India (J&K, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab), Pakistan, and China (Tibet).
The river finally discharges its water into Arabian Sea, South of Karachi forming a Delta.
Right Bank tributaries (Join from the west): Shyok, Gilgit, Nubra, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Sangar, and Kabul.
Left Bank tributaries (Join from the east): Zaskar, Soham, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlaj.

Shyok River

Origin from Rimo Glacier.
Known as ‘River of Death.’
Flow through Ladakh in India.

Jhelum River

Origin from Verinag Spring in Kashmir valley.
Also known as ‘Vyath’ or ‘Vitasa’.
Flow northward to Wular Lake in Kashmir.
It is the main river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Jhelum river emerges forming boundary between India and Pakistan at Potwar plateau.
Important towns: Srinagar.
Joins Chenab near Trimmu (Pakistan).

Chenab

Origin from Baralacha Pass, Himachal Pradesh (Confluence of Chandra & Bhaga).
It formed by two streams, the Chandra and Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himanchal. Hence it known as Chandra-Bhaga. Also known as Asikni and Iskmati.
It is the longest tributary of Indus River.

Ravi

Origin from Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
It forms a deep gorge in Dhulandhar range.
Joins Chenab in Pakistan.
Known as Parushni River in ancient times.

Beas

Origin from Beas Kund, near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
Also known as Vipasa.
Merges with Sutlej at Harike in Punjab (India).
This is the only tributary of Indus, which lies completely within the Indian territory.

Satluj

Origin: Rakas Lake, near Mansarovar in Tibet.
Only Indus tributary originating outside the Himalayan range.
In Tibet, it is known as Langchen Khambab.
In India, it is also known as Satudri.
It has created an extraordinary Canyon at Nari Khorasan province in Tibet, which is comparable to Grand Canyon of Colorado.

Indus Water Treaty (1960)

Signed between India and Pakistan with the World Bank as a mediator on September 19, 1960.
Allocates rivers as:
- Eastern Rivers (Beas, Ravi, Sutlej) - India has full rights.
- Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) - Pakistan has major rights.
India can use western rivers for non-consumptive purposes like irrigation, hydropower (run-of-river), navigation.

Important Facts (One-liners)

Longest tributary of Indus River is Chenab.
Only tributary of Indus that originates outside the Himalayas is Sutlej.
Indus enters India through Demchok (Ladakh).
Main river of Pakistan is Indus.
Jhelum flows through the Wular Lake (largest freshwater lake in India).
Chenab is formed by: Chandra + Bhaga rivers, that why it called as Chandrabhaga River.

The Ganga River System

The Ganga River, India’s most sacred and significant river, originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand.
Its true origin is from Bhagirathi, which emerges from Gaumukh (near Gangotri Glacier).
The river Alaknanda, also originating from the Himalayas, joins Bhagirathi at Devprayag, the combined water of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda is called Ganga below Devprayag.
Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km (India, Nepal, Tibet, Bangladesh), covers about 26% of India’s geographical area.
Total length of Ganga River is 2525 Km.
It flows southeast through the Gangetic plains, across Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, before draining into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganga forms the largest delta in the world, the Sundarbans Delta, shared by India and Bangladesh.
After passing through Farakka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh.
Ganga River fall into Bay of Bengal through a triangular delta.
Ganga River is used for inland water ways in India.
Left Bank tributaries of Ganga (Joins from north): Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda etc.
Right Bank tributaries of Ganga (Joins from south): Yamuna, Son, Tons, Chambal, Banas, Betwa, Damodar etc.

Ganga Action Plan

The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) is one of India's earliest and most significant river cleaning initiatives. It was launched by the Government of India in 1985 under the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), with the aim to reduce pollution in the River Ganga and to restore its water quality.

Lunched by: Rajiv Gandhi in 1985.
Objective: Reduce pollution in the Ganga and Rejuvenation.
Succeeded by: Namami Gange Mission (2014).
GAP Phase I (1985–2000): Targeted major polluted towns along the Ganga, including Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad, Patna, and Kolkata.
GAP Phase II (1993 onwards): Urban pollution control, conservation of water bodies, and further capacity building.

Panch Prayags

The term 'Prayag' means confluence, and Panch Prayag refers to the five sacred confluences of rivers in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, where the Alaknanda River meets its various tributaries. These sites hold immense spiritual significance in Hinduism and are part of the traditional Char Dham pilgrimage route.

Vishnu Prayag: Alaknanda + Dhaluiganga

Nanda Prayag: Alaknanda + Nandakini

Karna Prayag: Alaknanda + Pindar

Rudra Prayag: Alaknanda + Mandakini

Devprayag: Alaknanda + Bhagirathi

Trick to remember the Panch Prayags:

BaNK RoaD

Ramganga River

Origin from Kumaon Hills in Uttarakhand.
Ramganga joins the Ganga near Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh.

Gomti River

Origin from Gomat Taal near Pilibhit in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
Gomti is the only tributary of Ganga, which rises in the plains of India.
Flows through Lucknow and joins Ganga near Ghazipur.

Ghaghara River

Its source is near Gurla Mandhata Peak, South of Mansarovar in Tibet (River of the trans Himalaya origin).
It is known as the Karnaili river in West Bengal. Also known as Saryu River.
Its important tributaries are Sarda, Repti, and Sarju etc.

Kali River

Rise in the high glacier of trans Himalaya.
It forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon (Uttarakhand).
It Joins Ghaghara River.

Gandak River

Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at a height of 7620 m.
It is called as Narayani River in Nepal.
Gandak River comprises of two streams namely Kaligandak and Trishulgandak.
It joins Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.

Kosi River

It is an Antecedent River with its source to the north of Mt. Everest in Tibet.
Kosi river consists of 7 rivers (Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha Kosi, Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun Kosi and Tamber Kosi) and popularly known as Sapta Kosi.
They unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata range to from the Kosi.
Known as the 'Sorrow of Bihar' due to frequent floods. Also known as India’s river of sorrow.
Joins Ganga near Kursela, Bihar.

Mahananda River

It originates from Darjeeling hills in West Bengal.
Joins Ganga near Rajmahal hills in Jharkhand.

Yamuna River

Yamuna River originates from the Yamnotri glacier near Bandarpuch peak in Uttarakhand.
Longest and most important tributary of Ganga with the length of 1,376 km.
Yamuna meets Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahabad) and create Triveni Sangam; Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati (a mythical river).
Major tributaries of Yamuna are Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Sindh etc.
Cities on Yamuna River are Delhi, Agra, Mathura etc.
Kaimur range acts as water dived between Yamuna and Son.

Son River

Origins from Amarkantak Plateau, near Maikal hills in Madhya Pradesh.
Flows northeast through Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
It joins Ganga near Patna in Bihar.

Tons River

Origin from Bandarpunch range (in Himalayas).
Joins Yamuna in Uttarakhand, largest tributary of Yamuna and important for hydroelectricity.

Chambal River

It rises near Mhow, near Janapao hills in Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.
Joins Yamuna River in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh.

Banas River

Its origins in the southern part of Aravalli range.
The Banas is a tributary of Chambal River. It joins Chambal on Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border.

Betwa River

Origins in Bhupal district (Vindhyan range) and joins the Yamuna River near Hamirpur.

Damodar River

Damodar river rises in the Hills of the Chotonagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley.
Damodar is a tributary of Hooghly River.
The valley is called 'The Ruhr of India'.
Damodar has several tributaries and sub-tributaries, such as Barakar (important tributary), Konar, Bokaro, Haharo etc.
It used to cause devastating floods i.e., known as ‘Sorrow of Bengal.’
Damodar river meets Ganga at Shaympur (84 km below Kolkata).
Total Length- 541 km.

Important Facts (One-liners)

Ambala region acts as water divided between the Ganga and Indus River system.
The depth of Gangetic alluvial soil below the land surface about 6,000 m.
Largest left-bank tributary of Ganga (by volume) is Ghaghara.
Longest tributary as well as right-bank tributary of Ganga is Yamuna.
Most flood-prone tributary of Ganga is Kosi River.
Ganga-Yamuna confluence: Prayagraj (with mythical Saraswati - Triveni Sangam).
Ganga joins Brahmaputra in Bangladesh as ‘Padma.’
Most of the right bank tributaries of Ganga are originate from Peninsular plateau except Yamuna River.

The Brahmaputra River system

The Brahmaputra River System is one of the largest and most significant river systems in South Asia, known for its vast water discharge and transboundary course. It is notable for flowing through three countries- Tibet (China), India, and Bangladesh, and is especially prone to seasonal floods due to heavy rainfall and sediment rock.

Brahmaputra meaning 'The son of Brahama'.
Brahmaputra River originates from Chemayungdung glacier near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
In Tibet, it is known as Tsangpo or Yarlung Tsangpo, In Arunachal Pradesh it is known as Siang or Dihang, and in Bangladesh, it is known as Jamuna River, and later merges with Padma (Ganga).
Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Mansarovar Lake.
It cuts across the eastern Himalaya through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and emerges from the mountains it enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
From Sadiya (In Arunachal Pradesh/ Assam valley) onwards, this mighty river is known as the Brahmaputra.
Brahmaputra bends southwards and enters Bangladesh near Dhubri (Assam).
The river is nearly 16 Km wide at Dibrugarh in Assam and forms many Islands; Manjuli is the world’s biggest riverine island located in Assam.
Brahmaputra is known as 'River of sorrow'.
Right Bank tributaries: - Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Teesta, Torsa, Raidak, Sankosh, etc.
Left Bank tributaries: - Burhi-Dihang, Dhansiri, Lohit, Kopili, Doyang, etc.

Teesta River

Origin from Zemu glacier, in North Sikkim at an elevation of about 5,280 m with the length of 315 km.
It is a western most right bank tributary of Brahmaputra.
Teesta also forms a deep Gorge in Darjeeling hills.
Flows southward through Sikkim and south-eastward through West Bengal, before entering Bangladesh.
Tributaries of Teesta River are Rangpo, Ranjit and, Sevak.
Punarbhava and Atrai are the distributaries of Teesta River.
Testa River is called as ‘the River of Horror’ and ‘Lifeline of Sikkim.’
Teesta forms the northern boundary of West Bengal’s Terai-Dooars region.

Subansiri River

Originates from Tibetan Himalayas, in the mountains near Mount Porom or Chayul Chu, in southwestern Tibet.
In Tibet, it is known as Chaya Chu.
It is the longest tributary of the upper Brahmaputra.
Enters Assam and joins the Brahmaputra River near Majuli Island in Lakhimpur district.
The Subansiri valley is surrounded by dense forests and steep hills, making it rich in biodiversity.

Sankosh River

Origin in the Himalayan foothills of Bhutan, near the Duars region.
Sankosh river forms border between Assam and West Bengal.
Merges with the Brahmaputra River on its right bank near Sukhchar, close to Hatsingimari in Assam.

Important Facts (One-liners)

‘Raka’ is a tributary of Brahmaputra River.
NRCP stands for ‘National River Conservation Plan.’
The Idea of the National Water Grid (River Linking Project) was advocated by K. L. Rao.
Meghna River is the combined stream of ganga and Brahmaputra River.

Peninsular River System

The Peninsular River System refers to the river systems flowing across the Peninsular Plateau of India. These rivers are generally older than the Himalayan rivers, have reached their mature stage, and show well-developed valleys and broad floodplains.
Unlike the perennial Himalayan rivers, Peninsular rivers are mostly seasonal, dependent on the monsoon rains, with some exceptions where dams and reservoirs help maintain flow during the dry season.

Geologically Peninsular rivers are older than Himalayan rivers.
Mainly originate from Western Ghats, Vindhyas, or central highlands.
Mostly seasonal (rain-fed), except some dam-regulated rivers.
Peninsular rivers or South Indian River have mainly Dendritic drainage pattern (pattern of tree roots).
East flowing Peninsular rivers: Mahanadi River, Godavari River, Krishna River, Cauvery (Kaveri) river, Pennar river, Subharnarekha river, Brahamani river, Sarada river, Ponnaiyar River, Vaigai river.
West flowing Peninsular rivers: Narmada River, Tapi River, Luni River, Mahi River, Ghaggar River

East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

Generally originate from the Western Ghats or central highlands.
Flow across plateaus and plains of Peninsular India.
Flow eastward due to the sloping terrain from west to east.
Drain into the Bay of Bengal.
Longer and have larger drainage basins compared to west-flowing rivers.
High sediment load due to soft soil and heavy rainfall in catchment.
Carry more water due to larger catchment areas and monsoon dependence.
Important in agriculture and alluvial soil replenishment.

1. Mahanadi River

Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Northern foothills of Dandakaranya in Raipur district of Chattisgarh.
Mahanadi flow through the states of Chattisgarh and Orissa and fall in Bay of Bengal.
After receiving the Seonath river, it turns East and enter Orissa.
Its Upper course lies in the basin called the ‘Chattisgarh Plain’
It drains an area of around 1.42 lakh sq. km and total course of 900 km.
Important Project: Hirakud Dam in Odisha located on Mahanadi River- one of the longest dams in the world.
Left bank tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, and Ib.
Right bank tributaries: Ong, Tel, and Jonk.

2. Godavari River

It rises from Tribakeshwar in the Nasik district of Maharastra.
Godavari is the Largest Peninsular River and second largest river of India.
Godavari river also known as Dakshin Ganga or Vridha Ganga.
The Godavari basin extended overs states of Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Union Territory of Punducherry (Yanam) having a total area of 3 lakh sq. km.
Total length- 1465 km.
Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two main stream, the Gautami Godavarion in the east and Vashishta Godavari on the west and forms a large Delta before it pours into Bay of Bengal.
The delta of the Godavari is of Lobate type with a round bulge and many distributaries.
Godavari delta is associated with mangroves and lagoons like the Kolleru Lake.
Left Bank tributaries: Dharna, Pen Ganga, Wain Ganga, Wardha, Pranahita, Plench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.
Right Bank tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Peddavagu, Manjira, Bindusara, Maner etc.

3. Krishna River

Krishna river rises from the Western ghats near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri ranges (south of Mumbai).
The river basin extends over the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh with the length of 1400 km.
The Krishna River delta appears to merge with that formed by the Godavari and extend about 35 km into the Sea.
Left Bank tributaries: Bhima, Musi, Tungabhadra, Menneru, Dindi etc.
Right Bank tributaries: Ghatprabha, Malphrabha, Koyna, Warna etc.
Important Dams: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, Almatti Dam, Srisailam Dam, Koyna Dam, Prakasam Barrage etc.

4. Cauvery/ Kaveri River

It originates from Brhamani hills near Cherangala village of Kodagu (Coorg) district in Karnataka with the length of 800 km.
Cauvery also known as the Ganga of south, is the fourth largest river of south India.
Cauvery river basin extends over states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu, and U.T. of Puducherry, draining an area of 81k sq. km.
The upper catchment area (Kerala) receives rainfall during south-west monsoon season (Summer) and the lower catchment area (Tamilnadu) receives water from north-east monsoonal season (Winter), therefore the river flows throughout the year.
On the Cauvery branch lies the 'Grand Anicut' said to have been constructed by a Chola King in 1st Century A.D.
In Mandiya district, it forms two islands Srirangapatanam and Shivanasamudra, on other side of the Shivanasamudra Waterfalls (101 m).
Cauvery Delta is one of the most fertile and rice-producing regions in India.
Left bank tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavati etc.
Right bank tributaries: Lakshmantirtha, Kabbani, Suvarnavati, Bhavani, Amaravati, Noyil etc.
Important cities along the Cauvery River are Mysuru, Srinagapatna, Tircuhirappalli, Erode, Thanjavur, Kumbakonam etc.
Important Dams and Project on Cauvery River: Mettur Dam (Stanley Reservoir), Grand Anicut (Kallanai), Bhavani Sagar Dam etc.

5. Pennar River

Rises near Nandi Hills, in Chikkaballapur district, Karnataka and flows towards east, eventually drain into Bay of Bengal.
Total length is 597 km.
‘Gandikota canyon’ located in Andhra Pradesh on the Penner River, is called as the Grand Canyon of India.
The Pennar basin is semi-arid, prone to drought, and heavily reliant on tank irrigation and canal systems.
Left bank tributaries: Jayamangali, Kunderu, Sagileru etc.
Right bank tributaries: Chitravati, Papagni, Cheyyeru, Bugga River etc.
Important cities on penner River are Kadapa, Anantapur, Nellore, Tadipatri etc.
Important Dams and Projects: Somasila Dam, Mylavaram Dam, Gandikota Reservoir, Ananthasagaram Tank etc.

6. Subarnarekha River

Originates from Ranchi Plateau, near Nagri village (close to Ratu), Ranchi district, Jharkhand
Forms a boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course.
Total length 395 km.
Subarnarekha Multipurpose Project (SMP) is a joint effort by Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal to utilize the river for irrigation, hydropower, and flood control.
Left bank tributaries: Raru River, Kanchi River, Kharkai River etc.
Right bank tributaries: Karkari River, Dulung River etc.
Important Dams and Barrages: Getalsud Dam, Chandil Dam, Galudih Barrage, Icha Dam etc.

7. Brahamani River

The Brahamani River comes into existence by the confluence of the Koyel/Koel and the Sankh Rivers near Rourkela.
Total length is 800 km.
The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, and Odisha before drains into Bay of Bengal.

8. Vaigai River

Vaigai River entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
Vaigai River is the southernmost river in India.

West Following Peninsular Rivers

West flowing Peninsular rivers: Narmada River, Tapi River, Luni River, Mahi River, Ghaggar River
The West flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared to east flowing river.
Two major West flowing rivers are Narmada and Tapi/Tapti
Hundreds of small streams originating in the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards and join the Arabian Sea.
The west flow rivers, which fall into the Arabian Sea, they form Estuaries (Fluvial depositions Landforms).

1. Narmada River

Its origins from Maikala range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh.
Passes through Madhya Pradesh, enters Maharashtra briefly, and then flows into Gujarat before draining into the Arabian Sea through a broad estuary near Bharuch.
Narmada flows westward through a rift valley (through Lambasor valley) between the Vindhyan range on the North and the Satpura range on the South.
Narmada is the largest west flowing river of the Peninsular India.
Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat is 1310 km.
There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest.
Important Projects and Dams: Sardar Sarovar Dam, Indira Sagar Dam, Omkareshwar Dam, Maheshwar Dam, Bargi Dam, Tawa Dam etc.
Known as the ‘Lifeline of Madhya Pradesh’, it holds immense cultural, religious, and geographical significance.
Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga, one of the 12 Jyotirlingas, lies on an island in the Narmada.
Right bank tributaries: Hiran, Barna, Kolar, and Orsang etc.
Left bank tributaries: Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa, and Ganjal etc.

2. Tapi/ Tapti River

It originates near Multi reserve forest in Madhya Pradesh.
Flows westward through central India, entering Maharashtra and finally Gujarat, before meeting the Arabian Sea near Surat.
Tapi river is the second largest west flowing river of peninsular plateau of India.
Tapi river also known as ‘The Twin’ or 'The Handmaid' of the Narmada. Like Narmada, it flows in a rift valley between Satpura and Ajanta ranges.
Right bank tributaries: Suki, Gomai, Arunavati, and Aner.
Left bank tributaries: Vaghur, Amravati, Buary, Panjhara, Bori, Girna, Purna, Mona, and Sipna.
Important Dams and Irrigation projects: Ukai Dam, Hatnur Dam, Bhada Dam, and Padalsare Weir.
Important Towns on the River: Multai, Burhanpur, Bhusalwadi, Jalgaon, Surat etc.

3. Luni River

The Luni or the salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in Sanaskrit) is named so because its water is brackish below Baltora.
Luni river is the only river basin of any significance in western Rajasthan, which form the Bulk of arid zone.
It is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravalli.
Luni originates from western slopes of the Aravalli ranges near Ajmer, it following in south west direction and traversing a course of 511 km in Rajasthan, finally flow into the Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in the Marsh).
Its basin is part of the endorheic (closed) drainage system, meaning it does not reach the sea.

4. Mahi River

Its origins in Vindhyan hills in Dhar District of Madhya Pradesh and flow from east to west.
Flows north-westward into Rajasthan, making a loop, then turns south-westward into Gujarat and finally drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambhat.
Mahi River crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.
Vadodara is the only one important urban city in its basin.

5. Ghaggar River

The river originates in the Shivalik Hills near Kalka in Himachal Pradesh.
Flows through Haryana and Punjab, including districts like Ambala, Kaithal, Sirsa, and Fatehabad.
Due to low rainfall and high evaporation, the Ghaggar dries up quickly, especially in Rajasthan.
No delta or estuary is formed due to ephemeral flow and inland drainage.
Ghaggar River forms a boundary between Haryana and Panjab.
Many Harappan/Indus Valley Civilization sites like Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Banawali are found along the dried bed of the Ghaggar.

River Disputes in India

India is a federal country where rivers often flow across multiple state boundaries. Disputes arise when upstream and downstream states disagree over water sharing, storage, or usage. Due to India's seasonal rainfall pattern, monsoon dependency, and increasing water demand, river water disputes have become a significant interstate issue.

Article 262 of the Indian Constitution deals with the adjudication of inter-state water disputes.
Only the Parliament can resolve water disputes between states under Article 262.
The Supreme Court has limited jurisdiction unless the tribunal has not been formed.

Cauvery Water Dispute (Tamil Nadu–Karnataka–Kerala–Puducherry)

Dispute between upstream Karnataka and downstream Tamil Nadu.
Origin: Cauvery River originates in Karnataka, but Tamil Nadu has historically used more water for agriculture.
Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) was set up in 1990.

Krishna Water Dispute (Maharashtra–Karnataka–Andhra Pradesh–Telangana)

River Krishna originates in Maharashtra, flows through Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Tribunal formed in 1969 namely Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (KWDT).
Second tribunal (KWDT-II) was notified in 2004 after Telangana's formation.

Godavari Water Dispute (Maharashtra–Chhattisgarh–Telangana–Andhra Pradesh–Odisha)

Dispute mainly over projects like Polavaram and Kaleshwaram.
Tribunal: Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (GWDT), 1969.

Ravi-Beas Dispute (Punjab–Haryana–Rajasthan)

Involves distribution of water from Ravi and Beas rivers.
In 1981 the agreement between Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan has been done.
The SYL Canal is part of the Ravi-Beas dispute.

Narmada Water Dispute (Madhya Pradesh–Gujarat–Maharashtra–Rajasthan)

Dispute over construction and storage rights of Sardar Sarovar Dam.
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) was set up in 1969.

Mahanadi Water Dispute (Chhattisgarh–Odisha)

Odisha accuses Chhattisgarh of building dams upstream, reducing flow into Hirakud Dam.
Tribunal constituted in 2018 by the Centre.

Yamuna Water Dispute (Uttar Pradesh–Haryana–Delhi–Rajasthan–Himachal Pradesh)

Yamuna Water Agreement, 1994 signed among five basin states.
Delhi often faces water shortage, blames upstream states.
Involves pollution and reduced flow issues as well.
Yamuna Agreement (1994) was signed between 5 states.

Key Facts

Ram Ganga: A tributary of the Ganga River, originates from the Doodhatoli range of the Garhwal Himalayas, Uttarakhand.
Vishnu Ganga: Originates near Mana village, close to Badrinath in Uttarakhand. After the confluence, it becomes Alaknanda River, a main source stream of the Ganga.
Kali Ganga: Originates from the Kalapani glacier near Lipulekh Pass (Uttarakhand). Also known as Sharda River/ Sarju River in lower reaches. Disputed river due to boundary issues with Nepal.
Wain Ganga: A tributary of the Godavari River. Originates in Madhya Pradesh near Seoni district.
Pen Ganga: Another tributary of the Godavari River, flows in Maharashtra. Originates in Ajantha ranges and flows south-eastward.
Baridha Ganga: Godavari River is called as Vridha Ganga or Baridha Ganga.
Panch Ganga: A tributary of Krishna River.
Dudh Ganga: A tributary of Krishna River.
Kishan Ganga: Originates in Ganderbal district, J&K (India). A tributary of Indus/Jhelum.
Holly Ganga: Cauvery river also known as Holly Ganga.
Ganga of South India is Godavari River.
Dakshin Ganga: Godavari
South India’s Ganga is Godavari River.
Ganga of South is Cauvery River.
South Ganga: Cauvery River.
Longest River in India (within the country): Ganga (2525 km total; 2071 km in India)
Longest River flowing through India and Pakistan: Indus River (3180 km; 1114 km in India)
Largest River by Volume (water discharge): Brahmaputra
Second Longest River in Peninsular India: Krishna River
Longest River in Peninsular India: Godavari (1465 km)
Only major river flowing west and forming an estuary: Narmada River
Narmada & Tapi Rivers flow between two mountain ranges: Between Satpura and Vindhya ranges
Rivers forming Deltas: Ganga, Brahmaputra (together form Sundarbans Delta - World's largest), Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery
Rivers forming Estuaries: Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati
Rivers flowing through Rift Valleys: Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Damodar
Most Polluted River in India: Yamuna River
River with highest sediment load: Brahmaputra
River with the largest basin in India: Ganga River Basin
Youngest river system: Himalayan Rivers - still actively eroding and meandering
Oldest river system: Peninsular Rivers - stable and mature valleys.

Some FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions)

Q1. What is meant by 'Drainage Pattern'?
Answer: A drainage pattern refers to the geometric arrangement of rivers and their tributaries over a specific area, determined by topography, slope, geological structure, and rock resistance.

Q2. Which is the most common drainage pattern in India?
Answer: The dendritic pattern is the most common in India, seen in regions with uniform rock structure, such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and Deccan Plateau.

Q3. What is a Superimposed drainage system?
Answer: A Superimposed drainage occurs when a river maintains its course regardless of the underlying rock structures, due to earlier formation on a now-eroded rock layer.
Example: Chambal and Banas Rivers.

Q4. What is meant by a Radial drainage pattern? Give an example.
Answer: A radial pattern is where rivers flow outward in all directions from a central elevated point. Example: Rivers originating from Amarkantak Plateau or Mount Abu.

Q5. How is Indian drainage system divided?
Answer: The Indian drainage system is broadly divided into:

Himalayan River System (perennial, snow-fed + monsoon-fed).
Peninsular River System (seasonal, rain-fed, older).

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